The Evolution of the Conversation Around Psychedelics and Meditation The conversation about psychedelics and meditation was once closely linked in the 1960s and 1970s, but in the late 1980s and early 1990s, it started to shift as meditation was examined for its utility in promoting calmness, reducing stress, and improving sleep. This led to a greater emphasis on funding studies of meditation by universities like Harvard and Stanford, which included examining its effects on the brain and body. The development of brain imaging technology in the late 1980s and 1990s also played a significant role in understanding how meditation affects the brain and body. Transcript: Speaker 1 So nowadays the conversation about psychedelics is coming back, and it’s somewhat divorced from the conversation about meditation. But in the 1960s and 1970s, the conversation about psychedelics and meditation was sort of one in the same. That changed in the late 1980s and early 1990s when people like John Kabat’s Inn started writing books that were purely about meditation and suggesting that people explore meditative Practices for the utility to bring calmness, adjust stress, improve sleep, etc., divorced from the conversation about psychedelics. That’s not to say that the scientific community immediately embraced the conversation about meditation. In fact, it took quite a long while for schools like Harvard and Stanford and other universities around the world to start embracing and funding studies of meditation, asking what Sorts of brain areas are involved, how it changes the body, and perhaps most importantly, how a meditation practice can shift the brain and body when somebody is finished meditating And is off in their life, doing their everyday things. In the late 1980s and especially within the 1990s, the advent of brain imaging technology like magnetic resonance imaging, MRI or functional magnetic resonance imaging was a way To look at the brain while it was active, not just to get an image of its structure, but also how it’s functioning, the areas that so-called light up. (Time 0:11:44)
Specific Results of Meditation Regular meditation practice has a variety of clear benefits, including improvements in subjective feelings of happiness, sleep, and objective measures such as changes in hormones or markers of inflammation. Short meditation practices can also yield these benefits. The increasing acceptance of meditation in society can be attributed to major tech companies and investment firms incorporating meditation training and online courses. However, it is important to note that like exercise, different types of meditation can produce specific results based on frequency and technique. Transcript: Speaker 1 And then when people were evaluated in their outside life, so when they would fill out reports of their subjective feelings of happiness or they would report their sleep, or even if Objective measures were taken, changes in hormones or markers of inflammation, etc. A large list of information fell out of that, which revealed that indeed there are many, a dozen or more clear benefits of a regular meditation practice, and some of those meditation Practices could be quite short. So nowadays, we think of meditation as pretty commonly accepted, and in fact, that has a lot to do with the fact that many of the major tech companies in the Bay Area during the 2000s, such As Google and Apple and any number of different social media companies and other companies and business ventures, etc. And investment firms all over the world started hiring people to train meditation or had online courses for meditation. So nowadays, we think of meditation as this thing that almost everybody understands can benefit us. But we now sit at an interesting frontier where most people think of meditation as one thing, sort of like the word exercise, which of course could mean weight training, it could be running, It could mean high intensity interval training, all of which, as you know, will get you different results, depending on what you do, how often you do it, and the specifics of what you Actually do. So too, meditation can give you very specific results. (Time 0:13:42)
Understanding and Manipulating Brain Areas through Meditation Knowing the functions and names of different brain areas is beneficial as specific elements of meditation practice can be used to increase or decrease activity in these areas. One such area is the left dorsilateral prefrontal cortex located behind the forehead, which can be manipulated through meditation practice. Transcript: Speaker 1 You could say, well, what good is it knowing what different brain areas do and their names if I can’t actually manipulate those brain areas? But the good news is you actually can manipulate those brain areas. As I’ll tell you today, you can turn up the activity in certain brain areas and turn down the activity in specific brain areas with specific elements of a meditation practice. That’s quite exciting and quite different, really, from other aspects of neuroscience that we might discuss on this podcast. So there are a few different brain areas whose names I’d like to arm you with. And again, the names themselves aren’t essential, but if you can grasp even the top contour of what I’m about to say, you’ll be in a much better position to parse and use the information That follows. There’s an area of your brain that sits right behind your forehead that’s called the prefrontal cortex. Basically, it’s the front bumper of your head just behind the bone. That area just behind your forehead that we call the prefrontal cortex actually encompasses a lot of different things. And actually, you have two of them. You have one on the right side of your brain and you have one on the left side of your brain and they’re connected to one another, but they actually do different things. The area that I’d like to focus on today for a bit is the so-called left prefrontal cortex. Or if we were going to get really specific, we’d say the left dorsilateral prefrontal cortex. Dorsal means up, lateral means to the side. So if you want to touch the left side of your head and move your hand just toward the midline, toward the top of your head a little bit. (Time 0:16:37)
The Left Dorsilateral Prefrontal Cortex: Control and Interpretation The left dorsilateral prefrontal cortex, located just behind the forehead, is responsible for controlling bodily senses and interpreting emotions and bodily sensations. It has been studied through lesion and stimulation studies, revealing its incredible ability in these areas. Transcript: Speaker 1 There’s an area of your brain that sits right behind your forehead that’s called the prefrontal cortex. Basically, it’s the front bumper of your head just behind the bone. That area just behind your forehead that we call the prefrontal cortex actually encompasses a lot of different things. And actually, you have two of them. You have one on the right side of your brain and you have one on the left side of your brain and they’re connected to one another, but they actually do different things. The area that I’d like to focus on today for a bit is the so-called left prefrontal cortex. Or if we were going to get really specific, we’d say the left dorsilateral prefrontal cortex. Dorsal means up, lateral means to the side. So if you want to touch the left side of your head and move your hand just toward the midline, toward the top of your head a little bit. So that’s dorsal and then lateral. As long as your hand is still on the side of your head, you’re in the left dorsilateral prefrontal cortex. So you’ve got your hand probably right over your left dorsilateral prefrontal cortex. That area of the brain we know from lesion studies where it’s been damaged in animals or humans. And we know from stimulation studies where it’s been selectively stimulated in animals or, yes, indeed, also it’s been done in humans. Has an incredible ability to control your bodily senses and to make sense. That is to interpret what’s going on in terms of your emotions and your bodily sensations. (Time 0:17:18)
Interpreting Emotions and Bodily Sensations Activating the left dorsilateral prefrontal cortex allows for better interpretation of emotions and bodily sensations, leading to improved decision-making based on the interpretation. Research from lesion and stimulation studies has shown that this brain region has a significant role in controlling bodily senses and interpreting emotional and physical signals for sense-making. Transcript: Speaker 1 So that’s dorsal and then lateral. As long as your hand is still on the side of your head, you’re in the left dorsilateral prefrontal cortex. So you’ve got your hand probably right over your left dorsilateral prefrontal cortex. That area of the brain we know from lesion studies where it’s been damaged in animals or humans. And we know from stimulation studies where it’s been selectively stimulated in animals or, yes, indeed, also it’s been done in humans. Has an incredible ability to control your bodily senses and to make sense. That is to interpret what’s going on in terms of your emotions and your bodily sensations. So from now on, unless I say otherwise, if I say prefrontal cortex, I’m specifically referring to the left dorsilateral prefrontal cortex, but I’m going to shorten that up just for Some reason. I’m going to shorten that up just for sake of simplicity and ease of communication. If I’m going to talk about another area of prefrontal cortex, I’ll talk about another area. But if I say prefrontal cortex today, what I mean is left dorsilateral prefrontal cortex stimulation of left dorsilateral prefrontal cortex, or I should say more appropriately, When your left dorsilateral prefrontal cortex is active, you’re in a great position to interpret what’s going on with you emotionally and interpret your bodily signals of comfort Or discomfort, and then make really good decisions on the basis of that interpretation. (Time 0:18:00)
Interpreting Emotions and Bodily Sensations with the Left Dorsilateral Prefrontal Cortex The left dorsilateral prefrontal cortex plays a crucial role in interpreting emotions and bodily sensations, allowing individuals to make better decisions based on these interpretations. When active, it helps in understanding emotional states and bodily comfort/discomfort, leading to better decision-making. The left dorsilateral prefrontal cortex is directly connected to the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), which interprets bodily signals such as breathing rate and heart activity in different circumstances. Transcript: Speaker 1 That is to interpret what’s going on in terms of your emotions and your bodily sensations. So from now on, unless I say otherwise, if I say prefrontal cortex, I’m specifically referring to the left dorsilateral prefrontal cortex, but I’m going to shorten that up just for Some reason. I’m going to shorten that up just for sake of simplicity and ease of communication. If I’m going to talk about another area of prefrontal cortex, I’ll talk about another area. But if I say prefrontal cortex today, what I mean is left dorsilateral prefrontal cortex stimulation of left dorsilateral prefrontal cortex, or I should say more appropriately, When your left dorsilateral prefrontal cortex is active, you’re in a great position to interpret what’s going on with you emotionally and interpret your bodily signals of comfort Or discomfort, and then make really good decisions on the basis of that interpretation. And that’s because the left dorsilateral prefrontal cortex is in direct communication with and is directly connected to another brain area called the anterior singulate cortex, Or ACC. So I’m just going to refer to it as the ACC. The ACC is an area of your brain that is interpreting a lot of different things about bodily signals, for instance, how fast you’re breathing, whether or not your heart is beating quickly Or slowly, and more importantly, whether or not your heart is beating quickly or slowly for the circumstance that you are in. (Time 0:18:32)
Interpreting Bodily Signals for Contextual Response The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) in the brain interprets bodily signals such as breathing and heart rate to determine whether they are appropriate for the circumstances. The left dorsilateral prefrontal cortex is responsible for controlling and interpreting the ACC region. Unlike the well-known amygdala, the ACC receives input from various areas of the brain and body, including threat detection centers, heart, and gut, to assess the appropriateness of bodily responses for the given context. Transcript: Speaker 1 The ACC is an area of your brain that is interpreting a lot of different things about bodily signals, for instance, how fast you’re breathing, whether or not your heart is beating quickly Or slowly, and more importantly, whether or not your heart is beating quickly or slowly for the circumstance that you are in. So, for instance, if you’re running up a hill and you’re in even in great shape and your heart is beating very fast, it’s unlikely that you are going to be concerned about your heart beating Fast because that is appropriate for the circumstance. However, if you’re just walking along and all of a sudden your heart starts beating very quickly for no apparent reason, well then you are going to interpret that as either pathologic Or uncomfortable, inappropriate for the context that you happen to be in. The left dorsilateral prefrontal cortex is the area of the brain that actually has some control over and especially can interpret what’s going on in this ACC region. Now, most of you probably haven’t heard of the ACC. Most of you probably have heard of a brain area called the amygdala. It’s an almond shaped structure on the two sides of the brain. People talk about it as the fear center, etc. But your ACC, the enter-singulate cortex, gets input from areas like the amygdala, your threat detection centers, but it also gets input from an enormous number of other areas of your Brain and body, including your heart, your gut. So it gets information about how full that is distended or how empty your gut is. (Time 0:19:38)
The ACC and Insula: Interpreting signals from the body and brain The ACC (enter-singulate cortex) receives input from various areas of the brain and body, including the amygdala and visceral organs. It is crucial for interpreting information about the body’s internal state, as well as surface sensations like pain or itch. Working in tandem with the Insula, the ACC plays a pivotal role in making sense of signals from the brain and body, while the Insula also interprets these signals to understand what is happening internally. Transcript: Speaker 1 But your ACC, the enter-singulate cortex, gets input from areas like the amygdala, your threat detection centers, but it also gets input from an enormous number of other areas of your Brain and body, including your heart, your gut. So it gets information about how full that is distended or how empty your gut is. It gets information about how quickly you’re breathing from input from your lungs and related structures. It’s an absolutely critical station for making sense of what’s going on in your body. And it works very closely along with one other structure. And I promise this is going to be the third structure in this triad and then I’ll stop listing off names. We have Dorsolato prefrontal cortex. Think of that as sort of the interpreter of what’s going on inside of you. You have the ACC or enter-singulate cortex, which is the area of your brain that’s bringing in all this information about what’s going on inside your body. And even on the surface of your body. If you have any pain or an itch or a mosquito bite on the surface of your body, your ACC would definitely register that. And then there’s this other absolutely incredible brain structure, which is called the Insula, I-N-S-U-L-A, Insula. And the Insula has a bunch of different parts to it. But the Insula is another area that is interpreting signals of what’s going on in your brain and body. So the ACC and the Insula are working together to try and figure out, you know, what’s going on inside me. (Time 0:20:48)
The ACC and Insula: Interpreting Signals from Inside and Outside The ACC and Insula are brain structures that interpret signals from inside the body and from the outside environment. The ACC processes information about internal body sensations, such as pain or itch, while the Insula interprets signals from both the brain and body, as well as external surroundings. These structures work together to help the brain understand and respond to bodily sensations, helping to distinguish between normal sensations and potential threats. Transcript: Speaker 1 You have the ACC or enter-singulate cortex, which is the area of your brain that’s bringing in all this information about what’s going on inside your body. And even on the surface of your body. If you have any pain or an itch or a mosquito bite on the surface of your body, your ACC would definitely register that. And then there’s this other absolutely incredible brain structure, which is called the Insula, I-N-S-U-L-A, Insula. And the Insula has a bunch of different parts to it. But the Insula is another area that is interpreting signals of what’s going on in your brain and body. So the ACC and the Insula are working together to try and figure out, you know, what’s going on inside me. And in addition to that, the Insula is interpreting information about what’s going on outside of you. So your Insula is saying, for instance, this is a steep hill that I’m running up. And as a consequence, whatever heart rate increase that I’m experiencing or heavy breathing or burning in my lungs, this all makes sense. I don’t have to be worried. I don’t have to be scared. I might want to slow down, but this makes sense. Whereas it, for instance, in the example I previously gave, where if you’re sitting in a room and everything is pretty calm and all of a sudden you start feeling really uncomfortable. Like your stomach doesn’t feel right or you start breathing quickly or you start having a so-called anxiety or panic attack. In large part, that’s because the shift in your bodily sensations doesn’t match or doesn’t correspond to something in the outside world. (Time 0:21:33)
The Influence of Future Thoughts on Present Bodily State Our thoughts about the future can significantly impact our present bodily state, affecting our ability to engage in activities optimally. Whether it’s stress about an upcoming exam, pressure about a difficult conversation, or excitement for the next day, our bodily state may not match the present activity. This discrepancy can be accepted and understood due to our ability to access knowledge about the past, present, and future. The dynamic nature of this interaction highlights the adaptability of our bodily state to the current activity. Mindfulness, often associated with being present, aims to address this influence of future thoughts on our current state. Transcript: Speaker 1 So we do realize, for instance, that we can be seated at the dinner table, excuse me, and have a thought about something tomorrow, maybe an exam that’s stressing us out or something like That, and that will change our bodily state in a way that is not optimal for what we’re doing in the moment, but that can still make sense to us because that exam is important. Maybe we’re feeling some pressure about a hard conversation we have to have, or maybe we are very excited about the next day, and we can’t eat because we’re so excited, and that can make Perfect sense to us because we do have access to this knowledge about self that we can think about the past, the present, or the future. So that makes the conversation these three structures are in even more interesting and dynamic because what it means is that we can be doing something, eating, talking, running, any Number of different activities, and our bodily state may or may not match what we are doing in a way that’s adaptive for that, and yet that can be completely okay, or at least understandable For us. Now, a major emphasis of a meditation practice is to make us so-called more mindful. What is mindfulness? Well, again, there isn’t one perfect, universally accepted, operational definition of mindfulness. That’s basically nerd speak for saying people can’t agree exactly what mindfulness should be is and means for everyone. But most people assume, and I think agree, that mindfulness includes something about being present. (Time 0:24:15)
The Impact of Stopping and Closing Eyes on Brain Activation States in Meditation During meditation, the act of stopping movement and closing one’s eyes leads to a profound shift in brain and neural circuit function. This shift in brain activation states occurs as a result of the practice of sitting or lying down and closing one’s eyes, and it significantly affects the way the brain and other neural circuits in the body function. Transcript: Speaker 1 Okay, so what happens during a meditation practice at the neural level? In order to answer that question, we are going to be scientists. That means you and I are going to be scientists now. We are going to break down a practice into its different component parts and address what we know for sure about the brain activation states that occur with those different component Parts. In order to do that, let’s use a somewhat generic form of meditation, but it’s generic and pretty far reaching because I would say that for most people, about 75% let’s say a meditation Practice is going to involve stopping, meaning getting out of motion, sitting or lying down. And in most cases, closing one’s eyes, although it is absolutely not required to close one’s eyes during meditation. There are many forms of meditation that are done eyes open. But for most people, it’s going to involve stopping our movement that is not ambulating, not walking or running. So seated or lying down with eyes closed. When we do that, meaning when we sit or lie down and close our eyes, as trivial as that shift might sound to you, it actually is a profound shift in the way that your brain and other neural Circuits in your body function for the following reason. (Time 0:26:38)
The Impact of Closing Eyes During Meditation Closing one’s eyes during meditation, even though not mandatory, leads to a profound shift in brain function. It shuts down a major avenue of exteroception, which is the continuous sensing of stimuli from both within and outside the body. This shift from sensing to perceiving allows the brain and neural circuits to function differently, enhancing the meditative experience. Transcript: Speaker 1 And in most cases, closing one’s eyes, although it is absolutely not required to close one’s eyes during meditation. There are many forms of meditation that are done eyes open. But for most people, it’s going to involve stopping our movement that is not ambulating, not walking or running. So seated or lying down with eyes closed. When we do that, meaning when we sit or lie down and close our eyes, as trivial as that shift might sound to you, it actually is a profound shift in the way that your brain and other neural Circuits in your body function for the following reason. When we close our eyes, we shut down a major avenue of what’s called exteroception. What do I mean by exteroception? Well, very briefly, we are sensing things on our body and in our body all the time. We are also sensing things from outside of us all the time. So these can be sights or sounds touch on our body, sensations with inside our body, etc. Now sensation is distinct from what we call perception. Perception is put simply the sensations that we happen to be paying attention to. So at any given moment, you are sensing many, many things. There are sound waves hitting your ears. (Time 0:27:20)
The Profound Shift of Closing Our Eyes Closing our eyes results in a profound shift in the function of our brain and neural circuits, as it shuts down a major avenue of exteroception. Exteroception involves sensing both internal and external stimuli, while perception is the sensations we are paying attention to. We cannot perceive everything at once, so our perception works through spotlights of attention that can be narrow. Transcript: Speaker 1 When we do that, meaning when we sit or lie down and close our eyes, as trivial as that shift might sound to you, it actually is a profound shift in the way that your brain and other neural Circuits in your body function for the following reason. When we close our eyes, we shut down a major avenue of what’s called exteroception. What do I mean by exteroception? Well, very briefly, we are sensing things on our body and in our body all the time. We are also sensing things from outside of us all the time. So these can be sights or sounds touch on our body, sensations with inside our body, etc. Now sensation is distinct from what we call perception. Perception is put simply the sensations that we happen to be paying attention to. So at any given moment, you are sensing many, many things. There are sound waves hitting your ears. There are pressure receptors on the bottoms of your feet, sensing your shoes or your sandals or the floor, etc. But you’re not perceiving them until you place your attention on them. Now, the way perception works is that you have so-called spotlights of attention. You can’t perceive everything all at once. Every sound, every sight, every touch. That would be overwhelming. In fact, that would be terrible. Rather, you have spotlights of perception that can either be very narrow. (Time 0:27:41)